Amazing Hoodoos of Goblin Valley State Park, Utah

The Hoodoos of Goblin Valley could be one of the strangest and most fascinating sites in Utah, USA. The odd hoodoos were formed by the erosion of the so-called "Entrada sandstone," which developed during the Jurassic period between 190 and 140 million years ago. The Entrada is made up of eroded debris from past highlands that was redeposited on a former tidal flat with alternating layers of sandstone, siltstone, and shale. 

Goblin Valley's hoodoos are mushroom-shaped sandstone boulders that reach heights of up to 50 feet. Hoodoos are often found in arid, rocky environments. Their form results from the sandstone's inconsistent hardness. The top of the stone is often tougher than the bottom, shielding the foundation from elemental deterioration. Wind and water eroded these massive sandstone rocks over many decades. The end effect is an army of distinct hoodoo goblins. Animals and vegetation are scarce in Goblin Valley due to a shortage of water and food.  

However, the rocks, coves, and hundreds of miles of dirt roads are enough to keep any tourist both scared and entertained. The valley bottom is made mostly of bedrock. Because of a lack of soil and vegetation, water is not absorbed into the ground, and rainfall causes flash flooding. In addition, because of the valley's dryness and humidity, lightning frequently starts wildfires. Cowboys were the first to discover Goblin Valley, but Arthur Chaffin made a key discovery in the 1920s. 

Chaffin returned in 1949 to study the beautiful region, which he dubbed Mushroom Valley. The state of Utah claimed the area and officially designated it as a state park in 1964. Goblin Valley was used as the setting for the Hollywood film "Galaxy Quest" because of its strange scenery. Summer average daily highs range from 32 to 41 °C, but the low humidity, high elevation, and sparse vegetation allow evenings to fall quickly below 10 °C. 

Furthermore, the infrequent summer monsoon that arrives from the south can produce violent and localized thunderstorms. The rough terrain and heavy rains can cause disastrous flash floods, while low humidity, gusty winds, and frequent lightning can start wildfires. 

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The medieval Ingush towers, known as “vepshi,”

The medieval Ingush towers, known as “vepshi,” were primarily constructed between 13th-17th Centuries CE, by the Ingush people, a native ethnic group in the North Caucasus region. These towers are located in mountainous areas of what is now the Republic of Ingushetia, Russia which became known as the "land of towers". 

 

Based on their layout, masonry technique, and other features, cyclopean buildings have common features with the later towers in mountainous Ingushetia. Researchers note the continuity of the tower architecture of the Ingush, which was highly developed in the Middle Ages, from the stone construction technique that existed in the mountains of the Central Caucasus since the ancient period.

The Ingush people built these structures as part of their defensive and residential complexes. The towers served multiple purposes, including as fortifications, homes, and watchtowers to guard against invasions. They were typically constructed from local stone and ranged from 15-25m in height. They have a square base and taper slightly as they rise, often featuring four to five floors. The lower levels generally have small, narrow windows designed for defensive purposes, while the upper levels might include larger windows and openings. The tower walls could get up to a meter thick in some parts and they often include decorative stonework and inscriptions.

In 1931, Ukrainian traveller and explorer wrote:

From the ancient monuments that have been preserved here, it is obvious how talented and gifted the Ingush are. These people, who knew nothing of the alphabet, at a time when Moscow was still a village, were already building high stone towers on rocks, 26 or more meters high. We can say that the first skyscrapers did not appear in America, but here, in the Caucasus Mountains.

A Soviet archaeologist and historian wrote:

The Ingush battle towers can truly be recognized as the pinnacle of architectural and constructional mastery of the ancient population of the region. They amaze with their simplicity of form, monumentality and strict elegance.  The Ingush towers for their time were a true miracle of human genius. 

 

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Roman Mosaics of Ostia Antica

Merchants from all over the Roman Empire had their "offices" in Ostia Antica. Their store signs were these mosaics. The Forum of Corporations was the principal center of commerce and trade for the Roman Empire mainly during Age of Augustus. Located in the major port city of Ostia, this open-air market was essential for Rome as a place of varying and exotic goods from foreign lands. Merchants gathered here to sell anything from grain and shipping services to elephants and giraffes.

 Rebuilt in 2nd Century AD, the Forum of Corporations was also representative of the many diverse cultures that made up the Roman Empire. Oil importers, grain importers, rope-makers, and ship builders from corporations spanning across the empire came here to benefit from Ostia’s positioning at the mouth of the Tiber River, which easily facilitated the importation and transportation of goods into the empire.

A total of 61 rooms, each which measured 4 meters by 4 meters, opened onto the marketplace. The rooms were separated by a wooden partition and were arranged according to the geographic origin of the merchant or business, the majority which were based in Africa. There was also a temple in the middle of the forum sacred either to Annona Augusta, the Divinity of Imperial Supplies, or Ceres Augusta.

The most notable detail of the Forum of Corporations is the intricate black and white mosaics that lie in front of each shop. These mosaics indicated the professional associations of each vendor. The Forum was adjacent to the Theatre of Ostia and people would also pass through the Forum before and after performances. 

 

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